The Fungus Kingdom

In addition to the beauty of mushrooms, fungi provide a critical part of nature's continuous rebirth: fungi recycle dead organic matter into useful nutrients. Sometimes the fungus doesn't wait for the biomatter to die, in which case the fungus is called a parasite. Many plants, however, are dependent on the help of a fungus to get their own nutrients, living in a symbiotic relationship called a mycorrhizal association. Plants aren't the only ones, however, to enjoy fungi.

Fungi digest food outside their bodies: they release enzymes into the surrounding environment, breaking down organic matter into a form the fungus can absorb. Mycorrhizal associates benefit from this by absorbing materials digested by the fungi growing among their roots.

Fungi reproduce by releasing spores from a fruiting body. The fruit, called a mushroom, releases spores into the air, and the wind carries the spores off to start the next generation. Around 100,000 species of fungi are divided into five phyla, based largely on the characteristics of their reproductive organs.

Club Fungi (Basidiomycota)

When people think of mushrooms, the fruit of Basidiomycota probably comes to mind. Many mushrooms in this phylum look like umbrellas growing from the ground or like shelves growing on wood, but some, such as the latticed stinkhorn, look quite different.

Among the more famous families in this phylum are Agaricus -- including the supermarket variety of button mushrooms; Amanita -- including species that are deadly, delicious, or even hallucinogenic; Boletus -- best known for the King Bolete (called Porcini in Italy and Cepe in France); and Cantherellus -- known for the delicious and beautiful Chanterelle. These families include but a few of the mushrooms sought by collectors and gourmets from among the 25,000 species in this phylum.

Species in this phylum produce spores on a club-like structure called the basidium. The basidium may grow free or be attached to a surface called the hymenium.

Orders: Agaricales, Aphyllophorales (3 examples)

Produce spores on concealed surfaces, releasing spores only after the cover ruptures. Pictured below are a puffball and earthstar of the Order Lycoperdales and two stinkhorns of the Phalales Order.

Produce spores on the ends of inconspicuous threads. Examples include: jelly fungi (pictured), rusts, smuts

Sac Fungi (Ascomycota)

Ascomycota produce their spores in special pods or sac-like structures called asci. Included among the 25,000 species of this phylum are the prized Morel and Truffle mushrooms (class: Euascomycetae).

Other member of this class include Elfin Saddles (above/left), Morels, Cup Fungi, and Flask Fungi (below, left-to-right)

Another class of this phylum, Hemiascomycetae, is valued more for its activity than its beauty. Sacharomyces cerevisiae (Brewers, Bakers, and Nutritional Yeast) help us produce such popular staples as beer and bread.

Lichens (Mycophycophyta)

Once the beauty of mushrooms has enticed your greater scrutiny of the forest floor, you can't help but notice lichens as well.

Lichens are a symbiotic union between fungus and algae (or sometimes photosynthesizing bacteria). The algae provide nutrients while the fungus protects them from the elements. The result is a new organism distinctly different from its component species.

Though no longer considered a proper phylum, the radically different nature of these symbiots warrants separate treatment in this overview of the fungus kingdom.

Around 25,000 species of Lichens have been identified by scientists.

Conjugation Fungi (Zygomycota)

The best known of this phylum of around 600 species is black bread mold, such as Rhizopus stolonifer.

Imperfect Fungi (Deuteromycota)

Around 25,000 additional fungus species are grouped in this phylum -- these species are the "left-overs" that don't fit well into any of the other groups. Members include Trichophyton (Athlete's foot), Penicillium (Penicillin), and Candida albicans ("Yeast" infections).

Who Likes Fungi?

Life on this planet is an intricate tapestry of interaction. Individual species depend upon one another for sustenance, often forming surprising alliances to achieve a common goal: continuance of the species.

The Fungus Kingdom is no exception to this rule. Many species in the Plant Kingdom are dependent on mycorrhizal fungi for their sustenance. Some species such as the beautiful Snowplant are so fully dependent on fungi that they have lost the ability to photosynthesize. In fact, all members of the Heath family (Ericaceae) -- including Madrone (right), Manzanita, and Blueberries (aka Huckleberries) -- are dependent on fungi for life.

But these plants do not care about the mushroom directly. Some fungi, on the other hand, do live on the mushrooms of other fungi. Similarly, many members of the Animal Kingdom, live off of mushrooms.

The Fungus Gnat (such as Mycetophila fungorum) is probably the most prevalent mushroom predator. Adult gnats lay eggs at the base of a mushroom. The larva (or maggots, left and right) then burrow up the growing mushroom to find sustenance and shelter, often reducing perfectly good mushrooms into a pile of mush -- such as the Honey Mushrooms on the right -- much to the chagrin of human mushroom hunters.

Miniscule jumpy bugs called Springtails -- such as the highly magnified Culture Louse (Onychiurus folsomi) pictured on the left run a close second for most likely to be found on/in a mushroom. Other insects and Arthropods which find comfort in the mushroom include Moths, Beetles and Sowbugs. Some Ant species even cultivate fungus for food and save the mushrooms for their dignitaries!
Mollusks also enjoy munching mushrooms. While the banana-slug on the right is more photogenic, other mollusks enjoy mushrooms just as much. We once put several baby Agarici in a planter which happened to be home to a garden slug as well. Every night it would sneak out and nibble off another tasty morsel until nothing was left.

Closer to home, many mammals are fond of mushrooms, too. Bolete hunters know that squirrels and deer will often beat them to these prized mushrooms. The authors have even seen squirrels running up a tree with King Bolete in mouth as if it were an acorn. And Fungus Gnat maggot makes a tasty snack for a rat.

But the mammal who cherishes the mushroom most of all is the human being. Fungophiles can spend hours of joy hunting, preparing, and eating all sorts of edible mushrooms!

Manzanita Bolete steaks over Rice

Order Agaricales

Agaricales are your stereotypical mushroom -- an umbrella-like cap with gills on the underside radiating from a centrally positioned stalk. While some members vary slightly from this formula (for example the Boletes have pores instead of gills underneath the cap) the Agaricales stereotype is so strong that people often exclaim "That's a mushroom?!" when shown members of just about any other mushroom order.

The following represent but a few families in the order Agaricales:

L-R: The Amanita Family (Amanitaceae) includes some of our prettiest as well as deadliest mushrooms. The Agaricus Family(Agaricaceae) is best known for its supermarket varieties. The Russula Family (Russulaceae) includes mushrooms which "bleed" when cut (Golden Milk Cap -- Lactarius alnicola).

The Tricholoma Family (Tricholomataceae) is quite large and varied. Genera in this family include (L-R): Lacarria (Amethyst Laccaria -- Laccaria amethysteo-occidentalis), Omphalotus (Western Jack-O-Lantern -- Omphalotus olivascens), and Lentinus (Train Wrecker -- Lentinus lepideus)

L-R: Gomphidius Family (Gomphidiaceae) members are usually covered with goo (Gomphidius oregonensis). Coprinus Family (Coprinaceae) members digest themselves into an inky mess (Shaggy Mane -- Coprinus comatus). Waxy Cap Family (Hygrophoracea) members make up for their small size with brilliant displays of color (Scarlet Waxy Cap Hygrocybe punicea).

And, of course, the aforementioned Bolete Family (Boletaceae). Here is a King Bolete (Porcini, Cepes, Boletus edulis) held by the author.

As you can see, even though the Agaricales all follow the same general form, they still come in an impressive variety of shapes, colors, sizes, and habitats.

Phylum: Basidiomycota (spores produced on basidia)

Amanitas

Springtime Amanita (Amanita velosa)

Amanitas can be delicious or deadly, but they are arguably the prettiest of all gilled mushrooms. The young specimens emerge from their "egg" with patches of membrane left covering the cap and forming a cup (volva) at the base. The mature specimens often have brilliant cap colors, delicate skirts and cups, and are substantial enough to be tempting (unlike the pretty but smaller waxy caps). It is always a delight to find Amanitas, in all of their guises, although many are best left alone.

The Springtime Amanita shown above as well as its cousins, the Coccora and Grisettes are wonderful table mushrooms. The amanita family is however, notorious for its deadly species, such as the Death Cap (Amanita phalloides) pictured to the right.

Finally, rounding out the family portrait, is the Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria, left), known both from its use in fairy-tale illustrations as well as for its hallucinogenic and toxic properties.

Coral Fungi (Clavariaceae et. al.)

The Coral-shaped fungi can be slender and non-branching like the Fairy Fingers (Clavaria vernicularis) pictured at the top-center of this page or they can be bushy, with many branches, such as the Pink Coral Mushroom (Ramaria formosa) pictured in this section.

Many of these mushrooms are edible (though not this particular Ramaria) and, at the very least, they add wonderful color and character to their outdoor habitats.

Coral fungi produce spores along most of the surface of their fruiting body.

Toothed Fungi (Hydnaceae et. al.)

The toothed fungi can be coral-like -- as with the Toothed Coral Fungus (Hericium coralloides, left) -- or umbrella-shaped -- as with the Hawk's Wing (Hydnum imbricatum, right) mushroom. Unlike the mushrooms they resemble, however, the spore-producing underside of the toothed fungus is packed with soft spines. (The inset in the right photo shows the Hydnum's underside.)

These two particular species are among the authors' favorite edible fungi.

Chanterelles (Cantherellacea)

The Chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius), and its close relatives are among the most prized mushrooms in the field and one of the few wild mushrooms commercially available.

The mushrooms are as tasty as they are elegant and, more importantly, several species are virtually maggot-free. A fact which contributes to their overall popularity, no doubt.

Chanterelles produce spores on gill-like folds along the under (or outer) surface of the vase-shaped cap.

Phylum: Basidiomycota (spores produced on basidia)

Sac Fungi

The Sac Fungi (Ascomycota) are a diverse group. Most of these fungi do not produce substantial mushrooms; even fewer produce mushrooms worth eating. But Ascomycota do produce some of the most highly valued mushrooms: Morels and Truffles as well as the more unusual mushrooms such as the Candlesnuff fungus pictured here.

Sac fungi produce spores inside cases (asci) which may open at one end. This gives Ascomycota the ability to discharge spores forcefully by squeezing the asci. Several species including the Helvella and Xylaria pictured here release a cloud of spore "smoke" when disturbed. This phenomenon is quite interesting to observe and is also a useful diagnostic for identification: if the mushroom releases a cloud of light spores it is probably in this Phylum. (Note, though, that Puffballs and Earthstars may also release spores in a cloud, but they require an external force to eject the spores.)

Black Morel (Morchella elata)

Finding morels is a real challenge. Morels have a special knack for hiding out in the open. The casual observer may see the morel as a pebble or a pine cone and pass it by without even noticing. Morel hunters talk about "tuning their eyes" at the beginning of each morel season.

The gastronomic (and for professionals, economic) reward for this exercise is more than worth the effort.
The Black Morel, above, is a forest dweller -- hiding under pines in dirt, pine duff or snow. The White Morel (Morchella deliciosa, left), however, is often found in urban locations growing among leaves or other discarded stuff.

Notice how well the morels blend into their respective backgrounds. In fact, this author could not find the white morels even after a friend had pointed out their general location.

False Morels (Helvellaceae) such as the one pictured far left at the top of this page, superficially resemble real morels.

Another prominent group of Ascomycota is the Cup Fungi, so named for a macroscopic rather than microscopic feature. These fungi are in the same order as Morels (Pezizales) but look quite different.

The mushrooms of these fungi look like little cups or sacs and often do not have a stalk at all. An exception to this is the brightly colored Stalked Orange Peel Fungus (Aleuria rhenana). (Its sibling, the Orange Peel Fungus, Aleuria aurantia, grows without a stalk.)

Candlesnuff Fungus (Xylaria hypoxylon, left) is in a group of mushrooms called Flask Fungi because of the shape of their asci, not because of their macroscopic shape.

These spooky-looking mushrooms are actually quite tiny -- perhaps an inch (2.5 cm) high. The young specimens pictured here were found growing among moss and wood at the start our rainy season. Later on the Xylaria form antler-like heads which, when disturbed, release copious amounts of white spore-smoke.

These are not "Dead Man's Fingers" mushrooms (Xylaria polymorpha) despite their striking finger-like resemblance in this photo.

Phylum: Ascomycota (spores produced in sacs)

Lichens

If the other fungi are nature's recyclers, lichens are nature's pioneers. Lichens find their homes in some of the most barren and inhospitable parts of the world. From there they slowly begin the process of creating a foundation for habitation by others.

Lichens are among the most fascinating organisms on this planet. Their very structure is unique: a symbioses of two organisms -- a fungus and algae -- so complete that they behave and look like an entirely new being. A lichen can literally eat stones, survive severe cold, and remain dormant for long periods without harm.

Lichens rank among the least well known forms of life. Common names, when available, typically apply to the entire genus rather than to indvidual species. Classification of lichens is undergoing change as well. In fact, Mycologists now suggest eliminating the Lichens as a Phylum and, instead, reclassifying each invidual lichen according to its fungal component -- mostly Sac Fungi (Ascomycota). Never-the-less, lichens look so different from other fungi that they deserve separate treatment here.

Lichens can be divided into three basic forms: crustose, or crust-like; foliose or leaf-like; and fruticoseor stalked.

All lichens are believed to be edible (or at least not poisonous) except for Wolf Moss, shown below. Rock-tripe Lichens (not shown) are even considered a delicacy by the Japanese.

Crustose Lichens

Crustose lichens are flaky or crust-like. They can be found covering rocks, soil, bark, etc. -- often forming brilliantly colored streaks.

The yellow ones pictured here on a granite stone in the Rocky mountains, are probably Common Yolk Lichens (Acarospora spp.); the red, Caloplaca spp.; and green, Lecanora spp.. The little buttons to the left are a magnification of the red streaks above.

Foliose Lichens

Foliose (leaf-like) lichens can be papery thin or, in more advanced forms, netted branch-like. Branched foliose lichens have a distinct top and bottom surface, thus differentiating them from most fruticose lichens. This can be seen clearly in the Pseudocyphellaria anthraspis photo, above left; the Hypogymnia imshaugii on the right has a puffed body with a black undersurface.

The dainty buttons on the Pseudocyphellaria Lichen are quite showy. If you look carefully of the Hypogymnia you will see that it too is fruiting with less conspicuous green funnel-shaped mushrooms.

Fruticose Lichens

Fruticose lichens are the most highly developed lichens. Their branches are much closer in form to "true" branches although, unlike most plants, the lichen branch has no specialized vascular system for transporting fluids.

The British Soldier Lichen (Cladonia macilenta), left, is one of the showiest fruiting lichens: even though the mushrooms are quite tiny, their bright color and distinctive form makes them stand out in their forest habitat.

Old Man's Beard (Usnea spp., right and below) is a common green-grey lichen seen hanging from trees. A beginner may call all such lichens "Old Man's Beard" but, in fact, several look-alikes do exists (see below).

The fruiting Old Man's Beard (Usnea arizonica) below, right is another typical Usnea with a hairy appearance. If you look carefully at the lower right portion of the photo you will notice the wiry white inner pith of a broken branch. This is an identifying characteristic of all Usnea species: the inner cord becomes exposed when you grasp the ends of a branch and pull apart until it breaks.

Two similar-looking lichens are the yellow-orange Wolf Moss lichen (Letharia vulpina, below, left) -- named, oddly, because it was used to poison wolves -- and its bright green cousin Letharia columbiana (below, right) which graces the trees and floor of Montane conifer forests here in Northern California.

Lace Lichens (Ramalina menziesii, not pictured), can be seen hanging in thick curtains covering entire Oak trees with their flat lace-like growth.